The eastern Mojave Desert’s history, predating systematic federal oversight, is rich and multifaceted. The challenges and opportunities Mojave National Preserve faces today are deeply rooted in the history of human presence in this area. Similarly, both the celebrated features and the less desirable aspects of the park are products of human actions. Understanding the pre-federal management history of the eastern Mojave is therefore crucial for grasping its subsequent development.
Different groups perceived the eastern Mojave in diverse ways, shaped by their cultural backgrounds and economic aspirations. Native American tribes such as the Chemehuevi and Mohave considered it their homeland and a vital travel route. Early European and Euro-Americans often saw the desert as an unforgiving environment. Ranchers and miners, however, envisioned economic prospects through resource extraction, while homesteaders dreamed of land ownership and independent livelihoods. From the 19th century onwards, railroad, power, and pipeline companies, along with migrants on Route 66, viewed it as a territory to traverse. The U.S. Army saw the Mojave as resembling North Africa, ideal for training, and post-World War II Americans recognized its recreational potential. Initial steps towards systematic management emerged with ranching operations after the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, but comprehensive federal control only became necessary in the 1960s due to widespread, damaging recreational activities.
Native American Presence and Early Anglo Encounters
Illustration 2 – Prehistoric petroglyphs, like these at Indian Well, are testaments to early inhabitants of Mojave National Preserve.
Around 11,000 years ago, during the Ice Age’s decline, the region’s ecological zones were significantly lower in elevation, creating a wetter, cooler climate. Rivers and lakes were present where dry lake beds exist today. The abundant plant life supported diverse wildlife and indigenous populations reliant on these natural resources. While direct archaeological evidence from this early period is limited, over 1,300 archaeological sites from later prehistoric and historic periods have been identified within the Preserve, including 65 sites with rock art. Museums and researchers have been collecting artifacts from the area since 1925.
Native American tribes lived in small, mobile family groups, following seasonal patterns and establishing camps near water and food sources. Archaeologists have identified five periods of Native American occupation, spanning from about 5000 BC to AD 700-900, reflecting shifts in climate, tool technology, and subsistence practices. Around AD 700-900, the Mojave area was influenced by Ancestral Pueblo peoples, who established farming villages along rivers and traded extensively, reaching into the Preserve for turquoise and trade routes to the Pacific coast. Later, around AD 1000, Shoshonean and Paiute peoples replaced the Ancestral Puebloans, and Yuman-speaking groups from the lower Colorado River also utilized parts of the desert.
Modern Native American tribes are a product of interactions with the U.S. military and legal systems, and their designated lands often didn’t fully represent their pre-contact territories. Although no tribes directly control land within the Preserve, historical, archaeological, and ethnographic records show that ancestors of the Chemehuevi and Mohave tribes inhabited and traveled through the area. Oral histories and maps from Federal Indian Lands Claims cases in the 1950s and 1960s document Chemehuevi knowledge and land use. Mohave tribal members also have family histories connected to lands now within the Preserve’s eastern regions. Chemehuevi “song cycles,” detailed oral maps, identify numerous locations within the Preserve with names and stories of supernatural events. Despite shared territory, the Chemehuevi and Mohave were known to have conflicts, as noted by Spanish Friar Francisco Garcés in 1776. Euro-American contact with these tribes increased in the 19th century.
The Desert Chemehuevi primarily resided within the Preserve area throughout the year. Limited resources meant a low population density, likely never exceeding 150 people in the Preserve at any time. While the Chemehuevi were the main inhabitants of the Preserve, it is named after the Mohave tribe. The Mohave were agriculturalists living along the Colorado River, whose farming surplus supported a larger population. They were active traders, especially for coastal seashells, and developed a network of trails across the desert, connecting water sources. The Mohave Road, their trail network, became a key route for government and travelers crossing the desert before railroads.
Initially friendly to early European visitors like Garcés and Jedediah Smith, relations turned hostile after trappers arriving between Smith’s visits in 1826 and 1827 antagonized the Mohave. In 1827, when Smith returned, the Mohave attacked his party, resulting in significant casualties. This incident established the Mohave’s reputation as a fierce tribe. Further conflicts with trappers in the late 1820s and early 1830s led to more violence. It’s believed the Old Spanish Trail, north of the Preserve, was established in the 1830s to bypass the Mohave territory.
Following the Mexican War in 1848, the U.S. gained control of the Southwest, including the Mojave Desert. Interest in a transcontinental railroad grew, and in 1853-54, survey teams explored potential routes, including the 35th Parallel Route through the eastern Mojave. Lt. Robert S. Williamson surveyed from the west to Soda Lake, while Lt. A.W. Whipple explored from Arkansas to Los Angeles, following the Mojave Road.
Later efforts improved the Mojave Road. Between 1855 and 1857, the General Land Office surveyed township lines, though monuments were often lost. However, surveyors gained valuable desert knowledge, later guiding expeditions. In 1857-58, Edward F. Beale successfully surveyed a wagon road across the Arizona desert, passing through the Mojave along the Mojave Road, proving its viability.
Conflict between Native Americans and Euro-Americans led to a lasting federal presence. Mohave attacks on emigrant wagon trains in 1858 prompted military action. Major William Hoffman led a large force to the Colorado River and established Fort Mojave. Supplying the fort made the Mojave Road a well-used wagon route from Los Angeles until the Civil War in 1861, with improvements like Government Holes as a water stop.
In 1860, the U.S. military launched a punitive expedition into the eastern Mojave after murders at Bitter Springs, wrongly attributed to “Pah-Utes.” Led by James H. Carleton, troops built Camp Cady and Hancock’s Redoubt at Soda Springs, pursuing Native Americans across the western Preserve area. After a three-month campaign, peace was negotiated, but broken promises due to the Civil War rendered it ineffective.
The Civil War led to Fort Mojave’s abandonment in 1861, but it was reactivated in 1863 by California Volunteers to secure routes to Arizona, where gold was discovered. By 1864, the Mojave Road was vital for supplying Prescott, Arizona’s capital. From 1866-1868, mail service used the Mojave Road, requiring military escorts due to Native American hostilities, including an attack on Camp Cady. Outposts were built at Soda Springs, Marl Springs, Rock Spring, and “Piute” Creek to support these escorts. Peace was negotiated in late 1867, but heavy rains soon made the road impassable. Combined with losses from Native American conflicts, mail service shifted to a southern route, and the outposts were abandoned.
Military use of the Mojave Road decreased, but civilian use rose. By the 1870s, Fort Mojave was mainly supplied by steamboats on the Colorado River, but miners, prospectors, and ranchers continued using the Mojave Road until the railroad’s completion in 1883.
Grazing in the Mojave
Grazing by non-native livestock has been widespread across what is now Mojave National Preserve for over 150 years, starting with early Euro-American travelers along the Mojave Road. Herds of cattle and sheep were driven across the desert to supply Fort Mojave or to reach new pastures in New Mexico and Arizona. Military outposts also engaged in small-scale grazing.
Entrepreneurs established ranches from around 1875 to the late 19th century, capitalizing on the open range and markets from miners and railroad workers. George Briggs and LeRoy Blackburn, later partners in the Rock Springs Land & Cattle Company, established ranches around Marl Springs and Government Holes respectively around 1875. John Domingo raised horses near the Bonanza King mine from the early 1880s, and Daniel Kistler raised beef near present-day Kessler Spring around the same time. These early ranching locations were centered around key water sources and emerging economic activities.
In 1894, Blackburn and Briggs merged their operations with others to form the Rock Springs Land & Cattle Company, headquartered in Barnwell, the northern terminus of the Nevada Southern Railway. This highlighted the importance of rail transport for reaching wider markets. The Rock Springs outfit, like others, grazed cattle on unfenced public land, strategically acquiring water rights to control grazing areas. They sometimes had over 10,000 cattle on their 50-square-mile range.
Conflicts arose with homesteaders after 1910 who settled on prime grazing land. Cattle damage to crops and water access disputes led to retaliations, culminating in a shootout at Government Holes in 1925, driving away many homesteaders.
Sidney E. “Boots” Yates established his ranch in the Valley Wells area in 1894. Through hard work and a steady income as Rock Springs Company foreman, he built up his ranch. After WWI, his nephew L. E. “Boy” Williams also entered ranching. Yates passed away in 1923, and his widow Bessie continued running the Valley Wells ranch.
Illustration 3 – The 7IL Ranch, in the Colton Hills area, has been a family operation since 1938, showcasing ranching continuity in the Mojave.
John Domingo sold his horse ranch near Providence in 1918. It became the 7IL Ranch under J. N. Sanders and W. W. “Wash” Gibson, who raised cattle and hired Frank Murphy to manage operations in the early 1920s in the Lanfair area.
The drought of the late 1920s, especially 1928, significantly impacted Mojave ranching. The Rock Springs Land & Cattle Company dissolved. In 1928, Bessie Yates and “Boy” Williams bought the northern Rock Springs range. Nevada lands went to John Woolf, who sold to movie star Rex Bell (Walking Box Ranch). In 1931, Claud Halsell, Sr. acquired the remaining Rock Springs holdings, forming the OX Ranch. Gibson and Sanders sold the 7IL Ranch to Mark and Mary Pettit in 1929.
The late 1920s and 1930s were turbulent for Mojave cattle ranching due to drought and the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, which required fenced ranges and grazing fees. The Pettits sold the 7IL Ranch in 1934. In 1938, Herbert and Anson Murphy (sons of Frank Murphy) bought it back. The Yates/Williams partnership dissolved in 1937 due to fencing needs, creating Kessler Springs Ranch (Williams) and Valley View Ranch (Yates). Valley View was sold to Fred Twisselman in 1940, while Valley Wells remained with Sarah Yates Miles (Boots Yates’ daughter). Fleetwood “Fleet” Southcott Sr. homesteaded in Gold Valley in 1931, aiming to ranch.
The Taylor Grazing Act reshaped Mojave ranching, necessitating fencing and multiple water sources. “Boy” Williams and Claud Halsell invested heavily in infrastructure for their Kessler Springs and OX Ranches. “Fleet” Southcott leased an allotment in Gold Valley, establishing his ranch.
From the 1940s to the California Desert Protection Act of 1994, Mojave ranching persisted with traditional methods. “Slim” Skinner and Fred Twisselman bought Valley View in 1940, operating a steer operation. Skinner retired in the early 1980s, selling to Andy Anderson. In 1960, the Murphy brothers sold the 7IL ranch to the Blair family, who continue to operate it. “Boy” Williams sold Kessler Springs Ranch in 1942, eventually acquired by Gary Overson in 1969, who expanded it significantly.
Claud Halsell retained the OX Ranch until 1946, improving it greatly. Waldo Bozarth and Oscar Rudnick owned it until 1955, increasing the herd. Ed Eldridge purchased it, further developing infrastructure. In 1986, Gary and Linda Overson bought the OX Ranch from Eldridge, gaining control over a vast Mojave range. The Oversons also managed Valley View and Valley Wells for Richard Blincoe.
Over 125 years of ranching have profoundly altered the eastern Mojave. Water systems developed for ranching also benefit wildlife. Long-term grazing may have contributed to the iconic Joshua tree forests of Cima Dome and Lanfair Valley. Biologists noted that grazing increased shrubs, which create microclimates favorable for Joshua tree growth. This human influence on the landscape mirrors the sequoia forests in Sequoia National Park, shaped by Native American fire practices. Both are seemingly natural landscapes partly formed by long-term human actions. Ranching’s continuous presence has left a significant legacy on the Mojave’s cultural history and landscape.
Mining Locations in the Mojave
Mining has been historically significant in the area of Mojave National Preserve. The Mojave’s geological activity, at the junction of crustal plates, has created a highly mineralized environment. Faults and rock joints allowed mineral-rich water to rise, deposit minerals, and form rich but often small ore deposits. The Mojave has yielded a wide variety of minerals, including gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, tungsten, vanadium, and iron. Sparse vegetation made mineral deposits easier to find, facilitating exploration. Most Mojave mines, especially for precious metals, had small, rich veins, leading to occasional booms but limited long-term profitability. Mining remained a consistent human activity in the eastern Mojave.
American mining began in the 1860s, though many discoveries were developed later with railroad access. Pre-Euro-American Puebloan peoples mined turquoise near the Preserve, and rumors of earlier Spanish or Mexican mining activity intrigued American miners. Some soldiers at Mojave Road outposts, particularly near Marl Springs, may have conducted small-scale prospecting around 1860. Gold was found in the Vanderbilt area in 1861, but developed 30 years later. In 1863, silver was discovered, leading to the Rock Springs Mining District (Macedonian Mining District). Isolation and Native American conflicts caused its abandonment by 1866.
Significant mining in the Preserve began in the mid-1860s with silver discoveries north of Clark Mountain. In 1865, the Clarke Mining District was formed, named after William H. Clarke. Ivanpah (later Old Ivanpah) was the main town in the Clark District, north of Clark Mountain. This area was a major silver producer from 1869-1880, declining in the late 1890s due to falling silver prices and remoteness.
The Bonanza King Mine, near the present 7IL Ranch, discovered in 1880 by Ivanpah prospectors, produced rich silver until 1885 and sporadically after. Its mill, likely near the 7IL Ranch headquarters, burned in 1885 and was rebuilt later. Revivals occurred between 1905-07 and 1915-1920. Providence town grew near the mine. The railroad aided profitability; Bonanza King stock was on the NYSE, with total output exceeding $1.5 million.
Illustration 4 – Stone walls at Providence mark the location of the 1880s-era town near the Bonanza King Mine, a center of early Mojave mining activity.
Railroads boosted Mojave mining. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad (1883) had limited impact on Ivanpah mines. The Nevada Southern Railway (1893) to Barnwell served Vanderbilt, the Sagamore Mine, and stimulated prospecting. Early 1900s extensions from Barnwell to the New York Mountains and Ivanpah Valley, and to Searchlight, further aided mining activity.
The “Great Years” of Mojave mining, from 1900 to WWI, saw substantial precious and industrial metal production. The 1900 Tonopah boom spurred Mojave claims. The Copper World Mine, in the Clark Mountain area, produced 100 tons of copper daily. The Von Trigger Mine (California Mine) produced 30,000 tons of copper (1907-1909). The Paymaster Mine, on Old Dad Mountain (discovered 1900), yielded $75,000 in gold (1910-1914). These booms were short-lived; post-WWI depression impacted smaller Mojave producers.
The Great Depression increased gold mining in the Mojave. Higher gold prices, low labor costs, and unemployment fueled a surge. The Colosseum Mine, known since 1880 but unmined, began production in 1929. The Telegraph Mine (discovered 1930) produced $100,000 in gold (1932-1938).
WWII shifted Mojave mining from precious to industrial minerals. Precious metal mining was halted to support the war effort. Wartime resources in the Mojave included copper from small mines and tin and tungsten from the Evening Star Mine. The Vulcan Mine in the Providence Mountains was crucial, supplying iron ore to Henry Kaiser’s Fontana steel mill, making Kelso a boom town.
After the Vulcan Mine closed in 1948, focus shifted to materials like cinders. The Aiken Cinder Mine and Cima Cinder Mine opened around 1948, operating into the 1990s. The Mountain Pass Mine, just outside the Preserve, bought by Molycorp in 1951, became a major rare earth element producer.
From the late 1970s to mid-1990s, cyanide heap leaching revolutionized gold mining. Rising gold prices and this new technology allowed extraction from low-grade ore and tailings. Three major mines in and around the Preserve used this: the Colosseum Mine and Morning Star Mine (inside the Preserve), and Viceroy Gold’s Castle Mountain Mine (excluded from the park). Mining ceased in the Preserve after its establishment, but tailings and open pits remain.
